Qualitative Methodologies

Anyone who wants to know the human psyche will learn next to nothing from experimental psychology. He would be better advised to abandon exact science, put away his scholar's gown, bid farewell to his study, and wander with human heart throughout the world. There in the horrors of prisons, lunatic asylums and hospitals, in drab suburban pubs, in brothels and gambling-hells, in the salons of the elegant, the Stock Exchanges, socialist meetings, churches, revivalist gatherings and ecstatic sects, through love and hate, through the experience of passion in every form in his own body, he would reap richer stores of knowledge than text-books a foot thick could give him, and he will know how to doctor the sick with a real knowledge of the human soul. -- Carl Jung

The above quote from Carl Jung can be interpreted as a manifesto for qualitative research in the social sciences. The basic premise is that some things cannot be understood by measuring them, or that some phenomena cannot be measured at all. Qualitative research does not, therefore, attempt to measure human behaviour or experience. Rather it tries to characterise people’s experiences of the world – the way in which the world is real to those who are studied. The data that is collected from qualitative research is not amenable to statistical analysis. It falls to the researcher to organise the data in a meaningful way, and to interpret what it means. The good qualitative researcher will also reflect upon this experience, and consider how their own views and biases influence their interpretation. In other words, their analysis will be critical.

In this chapter we will look at three key qualitative research methodologies – unstructured interviews, (critical) ethnography and focus groups.

Unstructured Interviews

Unstructured interviews can be thought of as ‘guided conversations’. We can divide unstructured interviews into three main types (although these are not exhaustive):

Cultural interviews. These are an exploration of the experience of individuals within a culture, and the knowledge they pass on to future generations.
Oral (signed) histories. These relate to past events, such as experiences of World War II or the closure of a Deaf school. Participants are asked about their experiences from that time, and what they recall happening and feeling; how they interpreted the events then and now.
Life histories. Life histories focus upon the individual, and ask about the experience of that individual from childhood through to the present day. What was like being a deaf child in the 1930’s? How did that experience effect later life decisions, and what is the outcome for the individual today?

Unstructured interviews require a large investment of time. This is because they aim for depth of information, which can be time-consuming to obtain, analyse and interpret. The aim during the interview is to move from ‘public accounts’ towards ‘private accounts’. In other words, to go from the sort of answers that an interviewee would give to anyone towards the type of answer that reveals their true feelings and views. This is normally done using three types of question:

Main questions. It is always advisable to have a few topics for conversation noted down. There maybe certain aspects you want to explore in the interview. If things go well, then you may not need to refer to this list. The participant and researcher may successfully negotiate the course of the interview without the need to refer to it.
Probes. Often a participant will say something that you find interesting, but not expand upon it. They may even seem unsure whether they are giving you the information you want – often participants feel that they have a duty to tell you what you want to know! So, you may need to use probes to encourage participants to expand upon idea, or to indicate that you are happy for them to continue. Examples would include, ‘Could you tell me more about that?’ or ‘That’s interesting. Please continue.’
Follow-up questions. These are questions arising from a theme or topic introduced in the course of the interview. Often the interview will take unexpected directions, and new ideas for questions will occur to you. These ‘follow-up’ issues and points raised by the participant.

Conducting unstructured interviews is not easy, and is a skill acquired with practice and reflection. In this chapter you will be presented with some basic tips to help get you started:

Socio-demographic characteristics. You may wish to use a small structured form to note down details about the participant, such as their age, gender, ethnic background, and any other details you feel are important when interpreting the interview data.
Use icebreakers. Don’t just launch into the interview. Make the participant feel comfortable and relaxed. It is also important to make them feel they are actually participating and not just being interviewed. Use sentences like, ‘It would be really helpful to know your views on …’ and ‘I think it is important to know what Deaf people feel about …’.
Do not agree/disagree. You should do your best to remain neutral. In this sense, unstructured interviews differ from ethnographic research (which is covered below). You should not evaluate what the participant tells you, or indicate whether you agree or disagree with them.
Encourage. You have to encourage people to talk openly and freely. There are many ways you can do this, including: (a) having a friendly and relaxed manner, (b) phrasing questions in such a way that the participant feels their responses are valuable, (c) ensuring confidentiality, and (d) being positive in appearance and the style of questioning.
Use neutral probes. Probes should be as neutral as the questions you ask. ‘Please continue. That’s interesting’ is better than ‘I think you’re right. What other views do you have on that.’ You need to try and make sure you are not leading the participant, and encouraging them to say what they think you want to know.
Don’t rely only on videotapes. You will, of course, videotape your interviews – with permission from your participant or participants! But do not rely upon this. It is also helpful to make notes during the course of the interview. These notes can help guide the interview (if needed) and also help you remember your thoughts when you later come to transcribe and analyse the video material. Oh, and always remember to make a back-up of your interview videos!

There are also two important things to keep in mind when planning and conducting unstructured interviews:

Do not force your point of view upon the participant. Be aware that the participant’s frame of reference and viewpoint may be very different from your own.
Ethics are important. Unstructured interviews often raise subjects/topics that are sensitive or emotional in nature. You must not leave your participant feeling vulnerable, distressed or uncomfortable. This is also covered in a later chapter on Ethics.

Analysis of qualitative data is complex. The aim is to identify themes and topics from the interview that help you to understand the participant’s views and feelings, and use excerpts to ‘bring home’ these themes/topics to the reader. There are many ways to do this, but the most common is to isolate themes and topics from transcriptions of the data, and note these down. Then identify excerpts from the transcription that relate to these themes/topics. Some excerpts will fall into more than one category, so you will need a way of cross-referencing. It is helpful to use index cards or computer packages (such as Ethnograph and NUDIST) to make this process easier. You will often find that your first attempt is not successful, and does not capture what you think is going on. Do not be afraid to start again. Qualitative data analysis is an exploration of the data, and you will sometimes set off along the wrong path! More details on analysis and presentation of data from unstructured interviews can be found in Chapter 16 of Bowling (1997).

Focus Groups

Focus groups can be thought of as an unstructured interview with several people at the same time. They can contain from 6 to 20 participants and a group leader (usually the researcher). The important thing about a focus group is the group dynamic. The way in which members of the focus group relate to each other and engage with what each other is saying will determine the success of this approach. Focus groups are considered to be a useful tool for exploring cultural values and beliefs.

It is important to note that focus groups are not confidential. As a result, the demographic balance of the group is important, and great care must be taken in putting the group together. You do not want members to feel isolated or under-valued, and the aim is for all members to contribute and share their views and feelings. This aside, the information given about unstructured interviews (above) is also relevant here. Below are some additional pointers to help you get started:

An unstructured guide. Focus groups usually last for between 1 and 2 hours. Make sure have enough material for this length of time. This will normally take the form of a few questions which you can use to stimulate new conversation or change direction.
Comfortable environment. Make sure the focus group meets somewhere that members will be comfortable for 1-2 hours. Seating should be comfortable, the room should be well lighted, and refreshments must be available. Think also about the effect of the location on the group dynamic. Will the dynamic differ between the Centre for Deaf Studies and Bristol Deaf Club? Comfort is not only a physical property; members also need to be mentally and emotionally comfortable in their surroundings.
Room layout. You will need to keep a video record of the focus group, so you need to take care with the layout of the room. The layout must promote discussion, and yet at the same time allow contributions by all group members to be recorded.
Controlling the group. Focus groups are normally uncontrolled environments, in that the leader does not act as a formal ‘chair’ of the meeting. If the focus group consists of sign language users, however, the case may be different. Unless there is some control over who is allowed to sign, then information can be missed by group members when more than one person signs at the same time. It is therefore important for the group leader to negotiate with the members over how contributions can be made within the group.

Ethnography and Critical Ethnography

In ethnographic research, the researcher enters into the daily lives of those being studied. The methodology is a combination of participant observation (‘observing from within’) and unstructured interviewing. In ethnographic research, the participants are full collaborators. They are included in negotiating the content and direction of the research. In addition, when it comes to analysing, interpreting and reporting the data from the research, the participants must be included as well. This can be a cyclical process, with the researcher disseminating findings, gathering feedback and rewriting the research until all parties are satisfied with and can relate to the final research document.

Ethnographic research requires certain things from the researcher. He or she needs to:

engage with participants in a social situation, by ‘living’ among them.
acquire the language of those who are being studied.
observe from within, and conduct unstructured interviews.
make a record of events and analyse them.

It is important to understand the ambiguity and fluidity of the researcher’s role. As someone operating within the group that is being studied, and a member of that group, you will take on different roles at different times. Importantly, you will be perceived as being in different roles at different times. While some of the time your participants may be conscious that you are there as a researcher, at other times they will not. It may also be that while you are perceived as being in a research role, you see your role at that time as being quite different. Imagine being an ethnographic researcher who is Deaf and manager of a Deaf Club. Within the social sphere you can take on any of these three roles, and may be in all three at any one moment in time. You can be the researcher, the Deaf person, and/or the manager. How do you perceive yourself? How do others perceive you? Your role is ambiguous and fluid.

When conducting ethnographic research, it is important to be critical. This means you must:

Be aware of the fluidity and ambiguity of your role. This impacts upon the data you collect.
Be aware that you are biased. This bias can manifest itself in guiding the direction of the research, influencing how your participants react to you and what information they give you, and determining how you choose to interpret the data you have collected.
Reflect upon the research process. This means you have to think about what you have done, why you have done it, and what conclusions you have come to. It requires you to be aware of yourself as a researcher and as an individual with biases.

Ethnography becomes critical ethnography once you start to reflect upon how the research has been conducted by you as an agent of change and bias. This reflection is itself part of the research process, not a criticism you level at yourself in the Discussion of the dissertation.

Internet Resources

Qualitative Methods Workbook http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/qualmeth.html

Qualitative Research: Theory and Design http://www.gonzaga.edu/doctoral/ld723f00.html

Case Studies http://www.unc.edu/~steckler/hbhe253/casestud.html

Field Observation http://www.unc.edu/~steckler/hbhe253/obs_lecnote.html

Qualitative Interviewing: Purposes http://www.unc.edu/~steckler/hbhe253/purposes_of_interviewing.html

Qualitative Interviewing: What To Ask http://www.unc.edu/~steckler/hbhe253/what_questions_to_ask.html

Qualitative Interviewing: A Good Interviewer http://www.unc.edu/~steckler/hbhe253/interview_rules.html

Qualitative Interviewing: Some Rules http://www.unc.edu/~steckler/hbhe253/interview_rules.html

Focus Groups: Preparing http://www.unc.edu/~steckler/hbhe253/focgrp_hints.html

Focus Groups: Leading http://www.unc.edu/~steckler/hbhe253/how_to_focgrp_lead.html

Coding, Analysing & Presenting Qualitative Data http://www.unc.edu/~steckler/hbhe253/coding_exer.html