[These Principles are those of the British Psychological Society, and
are taken from the Society�s web pages.]
1. Introduction
1.1 The principles
given below are intended to apply to research with human participants.
Principles of conduct in professional practice are to be found in the Society�s
Code of Conduct and in the advisory documents pre p a red by the Divisions,
Sections and Special Groups of the Society.
1.2 Participants in
psychological research should have confidence in the investigators. Good
psychological research is possible only if there is mutual respect and
confidence between investigators and participants. Psychological investigators
are potentially interested in all aspects of human behaviour and conscious
experience. However, for ethical reasons, some areas of human experience and
behaviour may be beyond the reach of experiment, observation or other form of
psychological investigation. Ethical guidelines are necessary to clarify the
conditions under which psychological research is acceptable.
1.3 The principles
given below supplement for researchers with human participants the general
ethical principles of members of the Society as stated in The British
Psychological Society�s Code of Conduct (q.v.). Members of The British Psychological
Society are expected to abide by both the Code of Conduct and the
fuller principles expressed here. Members should also draw the
principles to the attention of research colleagues who are not members of
the Society. Members should encourage colleagues to adopt them and
ensure that they are followed by all researchers whom they supervise (e.g.
research assistants, postgraduate, undergraduate, A-Level and GCSE
students).
1.4 In recent years,
there has been an increase in legal actions by members of the general
public against professionals for alleged misconduct. Researchers must
recognise the possibility of such legal action if they infringe the rights
and dignity of participants in their research.
2. General
2.1 In all circumstances,
investigators must consider the ethical implications and psychological
consequences for the participants in their research .The essential
principle is that the investigation should be considered from
the standpoint of all participants; foreseeable threats to their
psychological well-being, health, values or dignity should be eliminated.
Investigators should recognise that, in our multi-cultural and
multi-ethnic society and where investigations involve individuals of
different ages, gender and social background, the investigators may not
have sufficient knowledge of the implications of any investigation
for the participants. It should be borne in mind that the best judge of whether
an investigation will cause offence may be a member of the population
from which the participants in the research are to be drawn.
3. Consent
3.1 Whenever possible, the
investigator should inform all participants of the objectives of
the investigation. The investigator should inform the participants of
all aspects of the research or intervention that might reasonably be
expected to influence willingness to participate. The investigator
should, normally, explain all other aspects of the research or
intervention about which the participants enquire. Failure to
make full disclosure prior to obtaining informed consent requires
additional safeguards to protect the welfare and dignity of the
participants (see Section 4).
3.2 Research with
children or with participants who have impairments that will
limit understanding and/or communication such that they are unable to
give their real consent requires special safe-guarding procedures.
3.3 Where possible,
the real consent of children and of adults with impairments in
understanding or communication should be obtained. In addition, where
research involves any persons under 16 years of age, consent should
be obtained from parents or from those in loco parentis. If
the nature of the research precludes consent being obtained from parents
or permission being obtained from teachers, before proceeding with
the research, the investigator must obtain approval from an Ethics
Committee.
3.4 Where real consent
cannot be obtained from adults with impairments in understanding
or communication, wherever possible the investigator should consult a
person well-placed to appreciate the participant�s reaction, such as
a member of the person�s family, and must obtain the disinterested
approval of the research from independent advisors.
3.5 When research is
being conducted with detained persons, particular care should be
taken over informed consent, paying attention to the special
circumstances which may affect the person�s ability to give free informed
consent.
3.6 Investigators
should realise that they are often in a position of authority or influence
over participants who may be their students, employees or clients.
This relationship must not be allowed to pressurise the participants to
take part in, or remain in, an investigation.
3.7 The payment of
participants must not be used to induce them to risk harm beyond that
which they risk without payment in their normal life style.
3.8 If harm, unusual
discomfort, or other negative consequences for the individual�s
future life might occur, the investigator must obtain
the disinterested approval of independent advisors, inform the
participants, and obtain informed, real consent from each of them.
3.9 In longitudinal
research, consent may need to be obtained on more than one occasion.
4. Deception
4.1 The withholding of
information or the misleading of participants is unacceptable if
the participants are typically likely to object or show unease once
debriefed. Where this is in any doubt, appropriate consultation must
precede the investigation. Consultation is best carried out with
individuals who share the social and cultural background of the
participants in the research, but the advice of ethics committees
or experienced and disinterested colleagues may be sufficient.
4.2 Intentional
deception of the participants over the purpose and general nature of
the investigation should be avoided whenever possible. Participants
should never be deliberately misled without extremely strong scientific
or medical justification. Even then there should be strict controls
and the disinterested approval of independent advisors.
4.3 It may be
impossible to study some psychological processes without
withholding information about the true object of the study
or deliberately misleading the participants. Before conducting such a
study, the investigator has a special responsibility to (a) determine
that alternative procedures avoiding concealment or deception are
not available; (b) ensure that the participants are provided
with sufficient information at the earliest stage; and (c) consult
appropriately upon the way that the withholding of information or
deliberate deception will be received.
5. Debriefing
5.1 In studies where the
participants are aware that they have taken part in an investigation,
when the data have been collected, the investigator should provide
the participants with any necessary in formation to complete their
understanding of the nature of the research .The investigator
should discuss with the participants their experience of the research
in order to monitor any unforeseen negative effects or
misconceptions.
5.2 Debriefing does
not provide a justification for unethical aspects of any
investigation.
5.3 Some effects which
may be produced by an experiment will not be negated by a
verbal description following the research. Investigators have a
responsibility to ensure that participants receive any necessary
debriefing in the form of active intervention before they leave the
research setting.
6. Withdrawal from the investigation
6.1 At the onset of the
investigation, investigators should make plain to participants their right
to withdraw from the research at any time, irrespective of whether or
not payment or other inducement has been offered. It is recognised that
this may be difficult in certain observational or
organisational settings, but nevertheless the investigator must attempt
to ensure that participants (including children) know of their right to
withdraw. When testing children, avoidance of the testing situation may be
taken as evidence of failure to consent to the procedure and should be
acknowledged.
6.2 In the light of
experience of the investigation, or as a result of debriefing,
the participant has the right to withdraw retrospectively any consent
given, and to require that their own data, including recordings,
be destroyed.
7. Confidentiality
7.1 Subject to the
requirements of legislation, including the Data Protection Act,
information obtained about a participant during an investigation is
confidential unless otherwise agreed in advance. Investigators who are
put under pressure to disclose confidential information should draw
this point to the attention of those exerting such
pressure. Participants in psychological research have a right to
expect that information they provide will be treated confidentially and,
if published, will not be identifiable as theirs. In the event
that confidentiality and/or anonymity cannot be guaranteed, the
participant must be warned of this in advance of agreeing to
participate.
8. Protection of participants
8.1 Investigators have a
primary responsibility to protect participants from physical and
mental harm during the investigation. Normally, the risk of harm must
be no greater than in ordinary life, i.e. participants should not be
exposed to risks greater than or additional to those encountered in
their normal lifestyles. Where the risk of harm is greater than in
ordinary life the provisions of 3.8 should apply. Participants must be
asked about any factors in the procedure that might create a risk,
such as pre-existing medical conditions, and must be advised of any
special action they should take to avoid risk.
8.2 Participants
should be informed of procedures for contacting the investigator
within a reasonable time period following participation should
stress, potential harm, or related questions or concern arise despite the
precautions required by the Principles. Where research
procedures might result in undesirable consequences for participants,
the investigator has the responsibility to detect and remove or correct
these consequences.
8.3 Where research may
involve behaviour or experiences that participants may regard
as personal and private the participants must be protected from
stress by all appropriate measures, including the assurance that answers
to personal questions need not be given. There should be no
concealment or deception when seeking information that might encroach
on privacy.
8.4 In research
involving children, great caution should be exercised when discussing the
results with parents, teachers or others acting in loco parentis,
since evaluative statements may carry unintended weight.
9. Observational research
9.1 Studies based upon observation
must respect the privacy and psychological well-being of the
individuals studied. Unless those observed give their consent to being
observed, observational research is only acceptable in situations
where those observed would expect to be observed by strangers.
Additionally, particular account should be taken of local cultural
values and of the possibility of intruding upon the privacy of
individuals who, even while in a normally public space, may believe they
are unobserved.
10. Giving advice
10.1 During research, an
investigator may obtain evidence of psychological or physical problems
of which a participant is, apparently, unaware. In such a case, the
investigator has a responsibility to inform the participant if the
investigator believes that by not doing so the participant�s future
well-being may be endangered.
10.2 If, in the normal
course of psychological research, or as a result of problems detected
as in 10.1, a participant solicits advice concerning educational,
personality, behavioural or health issues, caution should be exercised. If
the issue is serious and the investigator is not qualified to offer
assistance, the appropriate source of professional advice should be
recommended. Further details on the giving of advice will be found in
the Society�s Code of Conduct.
10.3 In some kinds of
investigation the giving of advice is appropriate if this forms an
intrinsic part of the research and has been agreed in advance.
11. Colleagues
11.1 Investigators share responsibility for the ethical treatment of research participants with their collaborators, assistants, students and employees. A psychologist who believes that another psychologist or investigator may be conducting research that is not in accordance with the principles above should encourage that investigator to re-evaluate the research.