Referencing
In academic work, when you refer to an idea or information provided by someone else you should always reference the publication in which it appears. This page tells you when, why and how to do so.
4 reasons to reference
Referencing is an essential part of academic writing for several reasons. Here are four of the most important:
- It shows that you have consulted and are familiar with the relevant research
- It ensures you have given due credit to the creators of ideas and information
- It enables your readers to consult the works you have referenced
- It helps you avoid plagiarism
Referencing styles
There are many different referencing styles, such as Harvard, APA, MHRA and OSCOLA.
It is important to ensure that you are following the appropriate style for your subject. Check your course or module handbook, or speak to your tutor, if you are unclear as to which style you should be using.
Once you know which style you should be using, the most important thing is to cite sources accurately and consistently.
When to reference
You should reference any source of information you draw on in your work. Here are two good rules to follow:
- If the information comes from outside your own head, then cite the source.
- If in doubt, provide a citation.
Following these rules will ensure that someone reading your work will be able to clearly distinguish between information and ideas that are your own, and information or ideas that you have encountered elsewhere.
General and common knowledge
There are two exceptions to the above guidance: general and common knowledge.
In a piece of academic work it's likely that you'll include examples of one or both of these. In neither case, however, would you have to provide a citation. Click below to find out more.
General knowledge
General knowledge consists of information that is found in many sources, and is likely to be remembered by most members of the public.
Examples include easily observable information or widely reported facts, such as: "The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth's five oceans".
Common knowledge
Common knowledge consists of information that is very likely to be already known by anybody studying or working in a particular field.
Common knowledge is therefore always discipline-specific, and you can probably think of many examples from your subject.
How to reference
There are three principle ways of working sources in to a piece of writing: summarising, paraphrasing and quoting.
Summarising
This is a short restatement of someone else's ideas, using your own language and reflecting the source accurately.
When?
- To simplify
- To eliminate unnecessary detail
- To make a minor point
- To convey an overall meaning
How?
- Read the source several times
- Write an outline in your own words
- Rearrange the outline to suit your needs
- Write the summary (without looking at the original)
- Check the paraphrased version against the original
- Add a citation
An example:
Some economists have argued that the core purpose of production is consumer satisfaction (e.g. Keynes 1936).
Paraphrasing
This is a restatement of someone else's ideas in a length and depth that is similar to the original source. As with summarising, it will be written in your own language and reflect the source accurately.
When?
- To rearrange for emphasis
- To simplify the language
- To clarify meaning
- To fit in with your own style
- To keep the same length
How?
- Read the source several times
- Write an outline in your own words
- Rearrange the outline to alter emphasis
- Write the paraphrase (without looking at the original)
- Check the paraphrased version against the original
- Add a citation
An example:
John Maynard Keynes claimed that while there is a variable length of time between the production of a commodity and its purchase by a consumer, the ultimate purpose of all production is the consumer's satisfaction (1936: 46).
Quoting
This is a word-for-word use of a source's ideas or information. Direct quoting is far more commonly used in the arts, humanities and social sciences than in the natural sciences.
When?
- To use effective language that cannot be improved
- To directly support a case you're making
- To distance yourself from a controversial statement
How?
- Copy out the text verbatim
- Enclose it in double quotation marks
- Make the quote a standalone, indented paragraph if it is more than three lines long
- Insert an ellipsis surrounded by square brackets – […] – if omitting any words
- Use square brackets to insert any necessary changes to punctuation or spelling
- Add a citation
An example:
According to John Maynard Keynes, "[a]ll production is for the purpose of ultimately satisfying a consumer. Time usually elapses, however – and sometimes much time – between the incurring of costs by the producer [...] and the purchase of the output by the ultimate consumer" (1936: 46).
The mechanics
1. Footnotes, endnotes and in-text citations
Depending on the referencing style you use, you will either cite sources in footnotes, in endnotes or in the body of the text itself. Harvard, for example, uses in-text citations, whereas MHRA uses footnotes and Vancouver uses endnotes.
Make sure that you know which referencing style you are meant to use, and follow it accurately and consistently.
2. Different kinds of sources
Over the course of your degree you will likely cite various types of sources. This includes not only books and journal articles, but perhaps also webpages, reports, laws or even AI-generated content.
Different types of sources are cited differently depending on the referencing style you use. For detailed guidance consult Cite Them Right or contact your Subject Librarian.
3. Bibliographies and reference lists
Your written work should not only include citations when you refer to another person's work, but also a bibliography and/or reference list.
A bibliography provides the bibliographic information for all of the sources you consulted while carrying out an assignment, including any that you did not cite. A bibliography is ordered alphabetically by author's surname, and appears at the end of your assignment.
A reference list provides the bibliographic information only for the sources cited in your work, and appears at the end of your document (but before the bibliography, if you have both). It is usually ordered alphabetically by author's surname, except in the Vancouver referencing style when the reference list is ordered numerically according to the sources you have cited.
Many referencing styles, such as Harvard, MHRA and OSCOLA will require a bibliography but not a reference list. Others, such as Vancouver, require both.
Cite Them Right is an excellent source of help with creating bibliographies and reference lists. Alternatively, contact your Subject Librarian.
4. Reference management software
Many students and staff use reference management software to keep track of their sources and save time when writing.
The most commonly-used referencing software packages are EndNote, Mendeley and Zotero. Regardless of which one you use, it will allow you to store and organise sources, as well as quickly insert citations into a piece of writing and automatically generate a reference list or bibliography.
Cite Them Right
Cite Them Right contains advice on citing many different types of sources, including books, journal articles, and AI such as ChatGPT.
Referencing tutorial
This tutorial from Cite Them Right teaches you how to cite the sources you use, and tests your knowledge of referencing.
Referencing tools
EndNote is the University of Bristol's recommended reference management software.
Mendeley and Zotero are alternative reference management software packages.
Subject Librarians
For further help with referencing please contact your subject librarian, who you can find listed by subject here.